The territory of Mongolia has long held strategic significance in the eastern part of the Eurasian continent and is recognized as one of the cradles of human civilization. Archaeological evidence indicates that early humans inhabited the Mongolian region as far back as 850,000 years ago. A wide array of archaeological findings from the Stone Age through successive stages of societal development attests to its continuous human presence. These findings are vital not only to the understanding of Mongolian history and culture but also contribute substantially to extensive studies of world history and early human development.

The first state established within the territory of present-day Mongolia was the Xiongnu Empire, which flourished from 209 BC to 93 AD. As the longest-lasting nomadic empire with a centralized political structure among ancient steppe civilizations, the Xiongnu played a foundational role in Mongolian statehood. Their administrative organization, material culture, and extensive archaeological remains are of paramount importance for understanding early Mongolian history. The empire encompassed a vast area, extending from Lake Baikal in the north to the Great Wall in the south, and from the Il Tarvagatai region in the west to the Korean Peninsula in the east. It was a multi-ethnic polity that practiced Tengrism and sustained a nomadic, livestock-based economy. The Xiongnu were skilled artisans, producing weapons, tools, and ornaments from gold, silver, and bronze. Their military was highly organized and centered on cavalry. Recent research studies in archaeology and paleogenetics increasingly support the understanding that the Xiongnu were the direct ancestors of the Mongolian people.

After the Xiongnu Empire, several nomadic states such as the Xianbei, Rouran, Turkic, Uyghur, and Khidan emerged in the Mongolian region. Eventually, in 1206, Chinggis Khaan founded the Great Mongol Empire, which laid the foundation for one of the greatest empires in world history, spanning much of Eurasia. The empire became the largest contiguous land empire ever known, stretching from the Sea of Japan in the east to Central Europe in the west, and from the Siberian taiga in the north to India, Vietnam, and the Arabian Peninsula in the south. During this era, the Mongols promoted international trade, ensured the safety of the Silk Road, accepted and allowed the cultural and religious diversity of various nations, and implemented unified systems of currency, taxation, and an empire-wide postal relay network.

Although the Great Mongol Empire had fragmented by the end of the 14th century, Mongolia continued to retain characteristics of a regional empire. However, during the 17th and 18th centuries, a combination of internal disunity and foreign invasions led to its decline. As a result, Mongolia gradually came under the domination of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty.

The history of Mongolia in the 20th and 21st centuries has been defined by profound political, social, economic, and cultural transformations. In 1911, Mongolia declared its independence from Manchu rule and established the Bogd Khanate. This was followed by the success of the People’s Revolution in 1921, and later, the Democratic Revolution of 1990 ushered in a new era of democratic governance and a market-based social system. Throughout this period, the country underwent several changes in its administrative and territorial divisions. Currently, the country consists of 21 provinces (aimags), 330 districts (soums), and 1,647 subdistricts (bags), along with the capital city Ulaanbaatar, which is divided into 9 districts and 204 subdistricts (khoroo).

This chapter features 27 maps illustrating archaeological monuments from the Stone Age to the present day, the distribution of nomadic populations, the boundaries of ancient and medieval Mongolian states and tribes, and the evolution of modern administrative units. The maps are intended to enhance the knowledge of anyone studying or interested in the history, archaeology, society, and economy of Mongolia.